Accounts Ethics and Integrity - 685 Words

Accounts ethics Integrity is a quality that is characterized by reliability, honesty and fairness that has been developed in relationships over time. It is a concept where there is consistency in actions, principles, measures, values, outcomes, expectations and methods used. Professional integrity is very important when it comes to personal credibility as well as professional success when it comes to the world of business. Integrity will enable someone to build relationships that are effective and based on trust and mutual respect, meeting deadlines when delivering services and achievement of results. Professional integrity implies that one will carry out their business in a professional manner within the workforce without necessarily looking at the situation one is faced with. In my state accountants operate under the International Federation of Accountants that has integrity as one of its fundamental principles. Integrity is argued to be the core principle since without it there can be no professional activity that can be relied upon. Its definition of integrity is high standards exhibited by an individual when it comes to performing their professional duties and their determination not to go below those standards regardless of the situation they are in. Integrity imposes an obligation on all professionals in the accounting field to be honest and straight forward when it comes to forming business and professional relations. The principles of professional code ofShow MoreRelatedEthics And Position Of Leadership Position Essay1400 Words   |  6 PagesEthics in Position of Leadership Position There is a wide range of careers available in the market and choosing the right career path is really important. There are many factors that help you decide a career and some of them are your skills, interest, personality, qualifications, etc. Based on my skills and interest I want to be a Financial Controller. With the growing marine business, I want to be a Financial Controller of MacGregor USA Inc., an engineering solution and services company that handlesRead MoreEthical Issues Involving Information Accounting1193 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction Ethical issues involving information accounting is a part of doing business and a large part of personal human ethics. Accounting ethics refer to codes or moral systems used to determine right and wrong in accounting. Accountants have a challenge with the arrival of information technology to observe business ethics in the field of accounting. Technology needs to be appreciated and used by accountants in the most important ways to improve efficiency, regulatory compliance, enhanceRead MoreEssay on The Dilemma Of An Accountant1267 Words   |  6 Pagesimportant client of his firm. Oliver Freeman is Daniel’s project manager. Oliver is the one that gave Daniel the task of performing the audit, and he is expecting a clean opinion from Daniel on the analysis of the Sub in order to secure the clients account exclusively. While performing the audit, Daniel found a discrepancy with the value of the Sub’s largest real estate properties. The Sub had valued the property at $2 million on their balance sheet, and Daniel had estimated the value of thatRead MoreSolving Ethical Dilemmas1611 Words   |  7 Pages2011 Dan Jensen Solving Ethical Dilemmas in the Accounting Profession The Dilemma of an Accountant Baker Greenleaf was one of the Big Eight accounting firms. Daniel Potter was a highly ethical accountant that placed a lot of value on integrity. He was hired to work as an accountant for the firm. Baker like many other firms was faced with a dilemma that tested the firm’s ethical standings. Even though a firm may be faced with a difficult decision, the firm’s ethical standing helps determineRead MoreCompany Code of Ethics Essay827 Words   |  4 PagesCompany Code of Ethics The Company code of ethics will cover all employees within our organization. The Code of ethics is essential for corporations today to remain in business and abide by their federal and state government regulations. Ethical training programs will exist ever corporation and are given to each employee usually the first day of employment and renewed on the annual basics. An ethical conflict occurs when people will encounter situations that they cannot easily control or resolvedRead MoreAlcoas Core Values in Practice: Ethics and Integrity708 Words   |  3 PagesCase Study: Alcoas Core Values in Practice Alcoa seems to live by an integrity approach. To wit: Alcoa had a very strong values-based culture. ... In 1985, Fred Fetterolf, then president, decided the company needed to document the values that all employees must live by: Integrity; Environment, Health, and Safety; Customer; Accountability; Excellence; People; and Profitability. Its later CEO Paul ONeill, empathized workplace health and safety to be one of the most important principles thatRead MoreEssay about Who Signs Your Check Group Project 21362 Words   |  6 PagesAccounting Ethics Professor Larry Wolod February 19, 2015 Contents Facts 2 Procedural History 2 Issue 2 Rule 2-3 Application / Analysis 3-4 Conclusion 4 Bibliography 5 Work Accomplished†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦6 Facts Willie Lowman is the internal auditor for Dead Salesman Printing who is currently in the process of auditing the company’s account receivables. He finds that the company is constantly crediting and debiting accounts receivable. 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Research Methodology Qualitative Methods of Data...

In the previous chapters I discussed the problem of the lack of healthy eating promotion programs in schools are leaving parents and students uneducated about how to purchase healthy items which is leading to childhood obesity. I also discussed how the problem is being addressed, as well as the theory of social constructionism. In this chapter, I will discuss the specific methodology I plan to use and the three different types of data collection I plan to employ to carry out my study. This study will use a qualitative approach to study and address the issue of the lack of healthy eating promotion in schools. The three types of data collection I plan to use are: direct observation, focus groups and a questionnaire. These methods will†¦show more content†¦The participants are the only ones who can legitimately judge the credibility of the results. In addition to creditability, transferability is also an imperative part of qualitative research. Transferability refers to the degree in which the results of qualitative research can be generalized or transferred to other contexts or settings (Trochim, 2006). From a qualitative perspective transferability is primarily the responsibility of the one doing the generalizing. In this case, some of the implications can be transferred to another setting such as a university setting. Since this study is taking place in elementary school setting as well as secondary school setting, it could easily be transferred to a university setting with some alterations. Another perspective regarding qualitative research is confirmability. Confirmability refers to the degree to which the results could be confirmed by others (Trochim, 2006). Qualitative research tends to assume that each researcher brings a unique perspective to the study. By applying each of these concepts to the study, the researcher is able to provide a credible, valid, transferable study. Next, I will discuss the qualitative methods of data collection that this study will exploit. Qualitative Methods of Data Collection Qualitative research uses a wide variety of methods. It includes virtually any information that can be captured that is not numeral inShow MoreRelatedQuantitative, Qualitative And Quantitative Methodologies804 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction Along with qualitative and quantitative methodologies in research, the trend of combining both qualitative and quantitative methodologies is widely used and increasingly articulated, attached to research practice and recognized as the third major research approach or research paradigm (Johnson, Onwuegbuzie Turner, 2007). As cited by Anaf and Sheppard (2007), Key in 1997 suggested the theory and meaning, qualitative and quantitative methodologies are distinct. 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Introduction To Research Methodologies .1219 Words   |  5 Pagesto Research Methodologies MAE 504 Research Methods in Education Dr. Wilson Tiaqunia Hayes Your task for the Module 1 SLP assignment is twofold: FIRST, fill in the matrix with information pertaining to the following items: identify the type of research represented by each methodology listed in the matrix (i.e., quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods) describe the purpose of each research methodology listed in the matrix, provide an example of a research problem for each methodology listedRead MoreResearch Methodology And Methods Of Research1033 Words   |  5 PagesCHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction There are various methods of research which can be implored in carrying out a study. Research method is very important because the use of different methods gives different results. This chapter explains and justifies the materials and the methods used in the research. The selection of method used for the research is based on the research problem, aim and objectives of the study to be achieved. This chapter therefore fully explains the research design;Read MoreThe Social Construction Of Experience1437 Words   |  6 PagesIn particular, qualitative researchers tend to focus more on the social-constructed reality and the contextual influence, interaction and constraints between the researcher(s) and the participants. They are interested in finding answers to questions that focus on the â€Å"social construction of experience and how meaning is created† (Cooper White, 2012, p. 15). However, quantitative researchers â€Å"emphasize measurement and analysis, and focus on produc t rather than process† (Cooper White, 2012, p.Read MoreProject Estimation Techniques And Methods For The Data Collection Process Essay1407 Words   |  6 Pages1 Research Methodology This research has been based on a specific method in order to achieve the concerned research. 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Enzymatic Assay of Chymotrypsin Free Sample for Students

Question: Discuss about the Enzymatic Assay of Chymotrypsin. Answer: Theory: There are hundreds of different enzymes in organisms. For a compound to be found into active site of an enzyme, a precise fit is required. Hence enzymes are said to be very specific. This specificity of enzymes is utilized in the determination of the presence of enzymes in a tissue even without isolating each enzyme. A proper selection of substrate and reaction condition is a must for such experimentation. For instance proteolysis enzymes hydrolyse certain of peptide bonds of proteins but not the glucosisdic bonds of starch. On the other hand, Amylase has activity in hydrolysing glucosisdic bonds of starch but not peptide bonds.(Garysmith) Chymotrypsin and trypsin areproteolytic enzymes and can hydrolyse a protein such as casein to small peptides.To be specific, Trypsin and chymotrypsin are two pancreatic endopeptidases. They have a number of similarities in properties and mechanism of action. The class of enzymes to which they belong is known as the serine proteas. It is so because they have a serine residue at the active site and this residue becomes involved in the formation of covalent acyl enzyme intermediatewith the part of the substrate molecule during course of enzymes reaction. The overwhelming guideline is the unmistakable and simple method of perception of the chemical response. Basic to all chemical catalysed responses is the way that a substrate ends up plainly changed over into an item and accordingly the point of any examine is to watch the time-subordinate arrangement of the item. To accomplish this, a method must be found to distinguish the item. Since development of item is specifically associated with the vanishing of substrate, its decay is a sufficient measure of the response. In situations where at least two items are framed, or at least two substrate particles are included in the response, the assurance of just a single segment is sufficient.4 Obviously the most straightforward distinguishable response segment will be picked. A straightforward yet imperative condition is that substrate and item should vary in the watched highlight. The item might be exceptionally well distinguishable by a particular strategy, however in the event that the substrate demonstrates a comparable flag with equivalent force; no turnover can be seen by any stretch of the imagination. Regularly both parts demonstrate a little contrast of generally comparable vast essential signs, particularly when just little atomic adjustments happen, as with numerous isomerase responses (Figure 2). Such changes might be mainly noticeable, however are typically hard to measure, since substantial signs are for the most part subject to solid scrambling, so that the little change created by the compound response ends up plainly lost inside this clamour. In such cases the flag to clamour proportion must be broke down (Figure 2, right). When in doubt the power of the flag showed by the response must surpass the clamour at any rate by a component of tw o. This is a general issue, since any strategy is to a pretty much degree subject to disseminate. Dissipating can have different starting points, a few, e.g. shakiness of the instruments or estimations in turbid arrangements like cell homogenates, can't be kept away from, while others, similar to pollutions, turbidity brought on by pitifully dissolvable substances, dirtying, clean or air pockets can at any rate be decreased via cautious dealing with. Dispersing is likewise most minimal if just the watched segment (substrate or item) creates the flag (e.g. ingestion), while alternate segments demonstrate no flag (no retention) in the watched go, so that the response begins really at zero and any adjustment in the flag shows the progressing response.(Bisswanger, 2014) Chymotrypsin and trypsin are generally engrossed in breaking a peptide bond in a protein molecule or putting it simply they break amide bonds in protein molecules. They have slight different preferences of their action. Chymotrypsin is oriented more towards cleaving bonds to C-terminal side of an aromatic amino acid (for example phenylalanine,tyrosine,or tryptophan).To a small extent Chymotrypsin also breaks other hydrophobic amino acids. Trypsi, however, have preferences in the cleavage to the C-terminal side of basic amino acids, lysine and arginine to site a few. Still proteins are not the best substrate to use for accurate kinetic analysis of these enzymes. A number of works have been carried out using artificial substrate. In most of the cases the artificial substrate used were simple amide derivatives of amino acids, and many a times ester derivatives of amino acids have also been used. These enzymes can break such amide or ester derivatives of the amino acids quite easily. A c areful and judicious selection of substrate makes the assaying of chymotrypsin and trypsin very easy since there occur a change in U.V absorbance on hydrolysis, which may be followed spectro-photometrically. Despite having similarities in their action and mechanism,Chymotrypsin and Trypsin can be distinguished based on their characteristic properties. For instance Chymotrypsin and Trypsin can be distinguished on the basis of their substrate specificity. The specificity of Trypsin is for peptide bonds. Also noticeable is that the affinity of Trypsin in not for all peptide bonds. Rather they have specificity for peptide bonds in which lysine and arginine furnish the carbonyl group. Chymotrypsin, on the other hand, has specificity for peptide bonds where tyrosine, phenylaline and tryptophan participate in the formation of the carbonyl group of peptide bonds. Thus ,based on the above mentioned properties N-benzoyl-L-argininamide (or ester) can be classified as a good substrate for trypsin .Based on the similar arguments that is to say based on the above mentioned characteristics N-benzyol-L-tryosinamide (or ester) is exemplified as a suitable substrate for chymotrypsin. The characteristic properties of chymotrypsin and trypsin which help in their assaying are briefly mentioned below. Chymotrypsin: Chymotrypsin is a proteolysis enzyme. It belongs to the group hydrolases.(Hyrdrolase or hydrolytic enzyme is an enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of a chemical bond. ) Chymotrypsin is secreted in pancreas. Its pH is at 8.0.it is an endopeptidase (an enzyme which breaks peptide bonds other than terminal ones in a peptide chain) that catalyses the hydrolysis of peptide bonds in which the carbonyl group is contributed by the aromatic residues, phenylalanine, tyrosine, or tryptophan .Like many other proteolytic enzymes, chymotrypsin also has esterase activity. This esterase activity of chymotrypsin is what taken into account to detect its presence qualitatively. Procedure for Enzymatic Assay of Chymotrypsin Description The following procedure is for products with a specification for chymotrypsin activity. Insoluble chymotrypsin cannot be assayed using this procedure. It is a continuous spectrophotometric rate determination based on the following reaction.(Sigma-Ardrich) BTEE +H2 O Chymotrypsin N-Benzoyl-L-tyrosine + ethanol Where: BTEE-N Benzoyl-L-tyrosine ethyl ester Unit Definition- One unit of chymotrypsin will hydrolyse 1.0 micromole of BTEE per minute at pH 7.8 at 25o C. Reagents and Equipment Required: TrizmaBase :2-Amino-2-(hydroxymethyl)-1,3-propanediol, THAM, Tris base, Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane, Trometamol: N?Benzoyl-L?Tyrosine Ethyl Ester) Methanol) Calcium chloride, dihydrate Hydrochloric acid solution Preparation Instructions Use ultrapure water (18Mxcm resistivity at 25C) for the preparation of reagents. Buffer (80mMTrisHCl Buffer, pH7.8 at 25C) Prepare a 9.69mg/ml solution in ultrapure water using Trizma Base . Adjust the pH of this solution to 7.8 at 25C. BTEE Solution (1.18 mMN?Benzoyl-L?Tyrosine Ethyl Ester) Weigh 37mg of N?Benzoyl-L?Tyrosine Ethyl Ester into a 100ml ClassA volumetric flask. Add 63.4ml of Methanol and mix by swirling. Bring the final volume of the solution to 100ml using ultrapure water. Invert the flask several times to ensure complete mixing. CaCl2 Solution (2M Calcium Chloride) Prepare a 294mg/ml solution in ultrapure water using Calcium chloride, dihydrate . HCl Solution (1 mM Hydrochloric Acid) Prepare a solution by diluting 0.10ml of 1.0M Hydrochloric acid solution to 100ml with ultrapure water in a 100ml Class A volumetric flask. Mix by inversion and place on ice. Enzyme Solution (Chymotrypsin) Immediately before use, prepare a solution containing 2?5chymotrypsin units per milliliter in cold (2?8C) HCl Solution. Procedure : First of all a reaction mix is made, say of 3 ml. This reaction mix contains the final concentration of 38mMTris, 0.55mMN-Benzoyl-L-Tyrosine Ethyl Ester, 30%(v/v) Methanol, 53mM Calcium Chloride, 0.03mM Hydrochloric Acid, and 0.2?0.5units of Chymotrypsin. 1.Following regents are pipetted into suitable quartz cuvettes: Reagent Blank (ml) Test (ml) Buffer 1.42 1.42 BTEE Solution 1.40 1.40 CaCl2 Solution 0.08 0.08 2.Mix by inversion and equilibrate to 25C using a suitably thermos tatted spectrophotometer. 3.Add the following to the cuvettes: Reagent Blank (ml) Test (ml) HCl Solution 0.10 Enzyme Solution 0.10 4.Immediately mix by inversion and record the increase in A256 for 3?5minutes. 5.Obtain the A256/minute for both the blank and test reactions using the maximum linear rate over a one minute interval using at least 4 points. Results: Calculations: 1. Units/ml enzyme = (A256/minute Test A256/minute Blank) x (3) x (df) (0.964) x (0.10) Where: 3 = volume (ml) of reaction mix df = dilution factor 0.964 = millimolar extinction coefficient of BTEE at 256nm 0.10 = volume (ml) of test sample used in assay 2. Units/mg solid = units/ml enzyme mg solid/ml enzyme Assaying of Trypsin : Enzymatic approach Description : This procedure can be used with products having specification for Trypsin. The substrate used is N-Benzoyl-L-arginine ethyl ester (BAEE). This procedure involves a continuous determination of spectrophotometric rate. It is based on the following reaction; BAEE + H2O Trypsin N-Benzoyl-L-arginine + ethanol Where: BAEE N-Benzoyl-L-arginine ethyl ester Unit Definition One BAEE unit of trypsin activity will produce a A253 of 0.001 per minute with BAEE as substrate at pH7.6 at 25C in a reaction volume of 3.20ml. Reagents needed: Sodium phosphate, monobasic N-Benzoyl-L-arginine ethyl ester) 1M Hydrochloric acid Instructions for preparation: Use of ultrapure water (= 18Mxcm resistivity at 25C) is recommended for the preparation of good reagent. Making of Buffer (67 mM Sodium Phosphate Buffer, pH 7.6 at 25C) - an 8.04 mg/ml solution is prepared using sodium phosphate, monobasic using ultrapure water. pH is adjusted to 7.6 at 25 oC with 1 M NaOH solution. Preparing substrate solution(0.25 mM N-Benzoyl-L-arginine ethyl ester) a 0.0866 mg/ml solution is prepared making use of N-Benzoyl-L-arginine ethyl ester (BAEE) in buffer. Preparing HCl solution (1 mM Hydrochloric acid) - a 1000 fold dilution of 1 M Hydrochloric acid solution is prepared in ultrapure water. Preparing Enzyme solution (Trypsin) - a solution which contain 425-575 units/ml of Trypsin in cold (2?8C) HCl Solution is prepared. Care should be taken to prepare this solution right before use. Procedure Again as before, a 3.20 ml of reaction mix is prepared. This reaction mix contains the 62.8 mM concentration of sodium phosphate, 0.23 mM concentration of N-Benzoyl-L-arginine ethyl ester ,0.031-0.063 mM concentration of hydrochloric acid, and 42.5-115.0 units of trypsin. Step 1: Following reagents are pipetted into convenient quartz cuvettes: Reagent Blank (ml) Test (ml) Substrate Solution 3.00 3.00 HCl Solution 0.200 0.125 Step 2: Mixing is done by inversion and the solution is brought to equilibrium to 25 oC.A suitable thermostatted spectrophotometer is used for the purpose. Then following is added to the resulting solution. Reagent Blank (ml) Test (ml) Enzyme Solution 0.075 Care should be taken to make final volume in each cuvette 3.2ml per unit definition. Step 3: then immediately inversion is used to mix and the increase in A253/minute is recorded for 5 minutes. Then using a 1minute time period and a minimum of 4 data points, obtain the A253/minute using the maximum linear rate for both the Blank and Test. Results Calculations 1 BAEE units/ml enzyme= (A253/minute Test A253/minute Blank) x (df) (0.001) x (0.075) Where: DF = dilution factor 0.001 = the change in A253/minute based on unit definition 0.075 = volume (ml) of test sample used in assay Note: The total volume in the cuvette is not used in the calculation since the unit definition is based on 3.2 ml. 2 Units/mg solid = units/ml enzyme mg solid/ml enzyme Bibliography (n.d.). Retrieved from Sigma-Ardrich: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sigma/b6125?lang=enregion=IN Bisswanger, H. (2014). Enzyme assays. Perspective in Sciences. Garysmith. (n.d.). Retrieved from UCDavis: https://fst123.fst.ucdavis.edu/~garysmith/123LData.dir/Experiment%201.pdf

Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Essay Example Essay Example

Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Essay Example Paper Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Essay Introduction Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma is a type of cancer that begins within immune system cells called lymphocytes. Similar to other cancers, lymphoma occurs when lymphocytes are uncontrollably growing and multiplying. These lymphocytes are white blood cells that move throughout the body with the help of a fluid called lymph. There they are transported by a network of different vessels that make up the lymphatic system, which is a part of the immune system. The main Job of the lymphatic system is to fght off infections or anything else that threatens the body. The lymphatic system consists of different lymph nodes located hroughout the body to help monitor the lymph that flows through them. These lymph nodes can be very helpful in predicting signs of possible cancer. The nodes will begin to tenderize and swell when a large amount of microbial organisms collect insides of them, indicating infection. There are two main types of lymphocytes, B- cells, and T-cells. Both are design ed to recognize and destroy infections, however, B- cells travel through the body with the infection, while T-cells kill the infection directly. When these cells begin to multiply too quickly, they begin to build up in the lymph odes, forming a giant mass of cells called a tumor. Once this tumor forms, it begins to grow, invading the space of nearby organs and tissues, cutting off their oxygen supply. If these abnormal lymphocytes travel between lymph nodes, or to other organs, the cancer can spread and metastasize to other regions of the body, making it much more difficult to control and get rid of. Non-Hodgkins is classified and derived from either abnormal B or T-cells and has thirty different subtypes (Clarke 139). Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Essay Body Paragraphs In the United States each year, about fifty-four thousand people are diagnosed ith Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma, making it the most common type of blood cancer in the U. S (Clarke 138). The symptoms of this disease may be difficult to discover, since often times they may appear suddenly and be painless. These symptoms can include swollen lymph nodes in the neck, armpit, or groin. This swelling may be painless and go unnoticed. There may also be discomfort or a fullness in the abdomen, feeling very tired or weak, shortness of breath, as well as fever and weight loss. It is important to get these symptoms checked out and monitored by a doctor to result in etter treatment if needed. There are certain risk factors that may increase the risk of Non-Hodgkins lymphoma, such as immune system deficiencies, chemicals, and older age. Certain medications that suppress immune system efficiency, as well as organ transplants, greatly increase the risk of new disease due to immunosuppressive therapy reduci ng the body’s ability to fght off new diseases (Clarke 142). There are also viruses and bacteria that have been linked to the increased risk of Non-Hodgkins lymphoma. Viruses that have been linked include HIV and Epstein-Barr virus, more commonly nown as herpes. Helicobacter Pylori, an ulcer-causing bacteria found in the stomach that has also been known to increase the risk of getting lymphoma. Although, more research needs to be conducted to connect pesticides with the risk of Non-Hodgkins, certaln Insect ana weed factor that is to be considered, although people at any age can get cancer, Non- Hodgkins is most common in people sixty or older. To diagnose lymphoma, a full physical must be conducted, as well as looking into family history. A oncologist will then be called in to review the findings and decide where to go next. When screening to find how far cancer has spread, several techniques can be used. These include x-rays, computerized tomography scans, magnetic resonance imaging, as well as lymphangiograms. Bone marrow examinations are also common to test if infected with abnormal B or T-cells. The best way to test for cancer is by conducting a biopsy and testing a small sample of the tumor to determine whether cancer exists or not. Conducting a biopsy or fluid examination is the best way to get an in-depth look at possible cancer cells. Immunohistochemistry is a popular test used by pathologists y treating the sample with antibodies that attach only to specific molecules on the cell. Color changes among the antibodies can occur and be seen under a microscope allowing pathologists to detect different diseases present. Flow cytometry is a very similar process to immunohistochemistry, but allows a much more in-depth look at the cells by passing them through a laser. This laser techniques provides the ability to separate and count groups of cells. Flow cytometry can also detect whether the lymph nodes are swollen due to lymphoma, or some other type of cancer, or a non- cancerous disease. This allows doctors to better determine the type of lymphoma to be dealt with as well as the best way to treat it. Another way to determine the type of lymphoma is through cytogenetics. This technique inhibits doctors to take a look at the chromosomes in the lymphoma cells to look for translocations, which is common in some types of lymphoma. Other ways to identify the type of lymphoma is if the cells have too many, too few, or other chromosomal abnormalities. Once diagnosed, there are four stages in distinguishing the extent of the disease, starting with the least serious being stage one. Stage one, or early in the diagnosis of ymphoma is when the disease is contained to single lymph node region or in a single organ. Stage two is classified when two or more lymph node regions are infected on the same side of the diaphragm, or when a lymph node and an organ are infected. Stage three is advanced lymphoma when two or more lymph nodes, or a lymph n ode and an organ infected on different sides of the body. Stage four, or the widespread level of lymphoma is when the cancer has spread to the spleen, bone marrow, bone, or central nervous system. There are different treatments based on the type, and stage of the cancer, as well s other factors such as age, and health status. The most common and effective treatment for Non-Hodgkins lymphoma is chemotherapy, radiation, and biological therapy. Chemotherapy uses chemicals that interfere with the cellular division process, triggering a suicide effect amongst the cancer cells. These chemicals attack all of the cells, including the healthy ones, although normal cells are able to recover from the chemical-induced damage, whereas the cancer cells cannot. Chemotherapy is usually used when the cancer has metastasized, since the medicines travels hroughout the entire body, rather than focusing on one place. This treatment is done in cycles, so the body has a resting period in between to heal b efore the next cycle . I nere are some sloe erects tnat come along wltn It still, tnese Include tnlngs such as hair loss, fatigue, nausea and vomiting. Although not as effective, there are also medications that can be used to boost the immune systems reaction to these infected a-cells. Rituximab is a biological medication that is a type of monoclonal antibody that attaches to B cells in order to make them more visible to the immune system to attack. This medication lowers the number of B cells, including the non- infected, healthy ones, however, the body will produce more cells, to replace these. Once the cancerous cells are dead, they are much less likely to reoccur. Radiation treatment works to destroy cancer cells by focusing high-energy rays onto the cells. This damages the molecular structure of the cells and causes them to commit suicide. These high-energy rays are usually emitted from metals, such as radium or strong x-rays that are created by a machine. Radiation can either be used on its own or in correlation with other cancer treatments. Side effects may include skin changes often resembling a sunburn or tan, vomiting, fatigue, nausea, and loss of appetite. The most effective treatment to increase a lymphoma patients chance for survival is the combination of the chemical R848 with radiation therapy. With the growing knowledge of genetics, doctors are able to better diagnose Non- hodgkin lymphoma through the methods mentioned previously, allowing a much better prognosis for those infected. There are also new treatments being looked into to help better treat and prevent this cancer from taking people’s lives. Vaccines are ow being introduced as a way to help treat certain cases of lymphoma. It has been known for quite some time that people’s immune systems may help play a major role in fghting cancer, in some cases, some have been cured after their immune system rejects the cancer. With this knowledge, doctors are trying to encourage this immune reaction with a vaccine. This vaccine is used to treat, rather than prevent the disease, and is only available in clinical trials as of now. The goal of this is to create an immune reaction in patients dealing with lymphoma in either the early stages, or clients whose disease is in remission. Along with having very little side effects, when used in clinical trials treating late-stage patients whom chemotherapy was successful, the vaccine increased the time the lymphoma came back by at least a year. Increasing one’s knowledge of signs and symptoms correlated with Non-Hodgkins can create a better prognosis of successfully killing the disease. The research of new vaccines that can help the immune system naturally kill the cells on it’s own can greatly decrease the need for other treatments such as chemotherapy and radiation, along with the horrible side effects that come along with them. 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